Table of Contents
Preference

There is a substantial relationship between nutrition, functional foods and healthy ageing; the term functional foods were first used in Japan as early as 1980. All foods are functional although some food components provide more health benefits other than basic nutrition.

Examples of functional food and bio functional foods may be fortified, enriched with dietary supplements, or synthetically enhanced or grown via modified bacteria and/or fungi; Functional foods provide essential nutrients in quality necessary for maintenance, growth and development an enhance healthy physiological effects. Dietary supplements are also in the category of functional foods though food supplements constitute a different delivery system for bioactive components.

Nutriepigenomics explains how functional foods influence epigenetic modifications both histone modifications and Non-coding RNAs of the human genome while regulating health and disease. Epigenetics is dynamic the study of heritable meiotic and miotic changes in gene expression and repression functionalities that are not resultant of changes in DNA sequence; the structural epigenetic modifications that effect chromosomal histone-complex or nucleosomal tail methylation and acetylation are involved in tissue specific patterns that register and signal heritable gene expression without sequential DNA modifications.

The objectives are to introduce to the reader Nutrition, functional foods and Epigenetics with explanations of associated quantum theory and biological concepts throughout the text. There is a hypothesis within: Quantum field biological interactions and Pseudocertainty on epigenetics. Also, a system of referencing has been adopted: Glossary, Appendixes and Index for explanatory rational, the reader shall find the glossary an intriguing learning system which is referenced throughout the text. This publication is suitable for the general population with a thirst for knowledge, and for individuals with a studious interest in nutrition, functional foods, and epigenetics as methods towards healthy ageing. The reader’s health is not guaranteed though functional foods combined with personalized nutrition will help towards healthy ageing.

Introduction

Epigenetics is the study of heritable and dynamic meiotic and miotic changes in gene expression and repression functionalities that are not resultant of changes in DNA sequence, the structural chromosomal modifications that effect histone complex methylation and acetylation are dynamic, involved in tissue specific patterns that register and signal heritable gene expression without sequential DNA modifications. Thus, epigenetic interactions are not always heritable as dynamic interactions of epigenetic clock reversal and biomarkers correction overtime is achievable via functional foods, food supplements and even future gene editing.

Nutritional micronutrients and functional foods have an effect via epigenetic histone modifications which do not directly affect DNA structure. Epigenetic control of gene expression constitutes three biological systems: Histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNA repression. whereby effectors, effect the octamer histone protein amino tails that help to form a supportive nucleosol hairpin structure for the coiled DNA as shown in following text. Some external and internal environmental factors on epigenetics switch gene expression off via Methyl-groups, or on via acetyl-groups, with later discourse and further detail.

Maternal and nutritional epigenetic programming is inheritable, both intergenerational and transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, although when gene biomarkers are in a poised state genes are not expressed known as gene silencing. Therefore, functional foods combined with healthy lifestyle choices limits undesirable gene expression, further explained as follows.

Quote: - “evolution is perpetuated via the most appropriate mutation, given internal and external environmental factors” via chemical affinity and affinity via quantum interactions. King. J.L (2021).

Epigenetics are reactive to functional foods and the above evolutionary factors, both external to the environment and internal to biological systems via hormonal signaling affinities; the evolutionary modification of histone methylation has evolved as a reactive defense mechanism against co-evolving pathogens, and for evolutionary selection of appropriate modifications.

The natural environmental complexities have co-evolved with all species throughout evolution, humans have been producing pollutants and creating environmental factors on a tremendous scale that impact all species. The environmental pollutants are vast, and issues are geo-political that far exceed this textbook, as environmental science considerations are geo-global-issues and geosocial-issues that will not be researched in detail within this particular publication.

Epigenetic nutritional micronutrients are considered - vitamins, minerals, herbs, fresh and functional foods. A knowledge of biological terms and Nutrition is assumed although, there is no recommendations for readers that have illnesses, or inheritable genomic modifications or knowledge of appropriate nutrition; referral to a specialist Nutritionist, G.P. and or a specialist Genomic-program practitioner or functional food practitioner is advised for advice and/or therapy.

Genomic-program-practitioners test and monitor epigenetic health utilising biological methods to discover personalized nutrition; initially utilizing swab and/or blood test for DNA sequencing, Genotyping, Epigenetics and other test to discover appropriate personalized nutrition. Future Genomic-program practitioners offer services for: DNA sequencing, Genotyping services, DNA synthesized products utilizing genome (and future plasmid genetics for bacteria derived functional foods) compilers to synthesis DNA, RNA or proteins; and bioinformatics services for pharmaceutical companies, diagnostics, also for the food and agricultural biotechnological research markets.

Chapter 1
Internal and external environmental factors on Epigenetics

Pollutants such as Bisphenol, Phthalates, Pesticides and metals... are environmental factors that have impact on both histone epigenetic alterations and genome DNA mutations; most environmental pollutants are detrimental to optimal health although debatably accepted and tolerated if the pollutants are within 'recommended levels', histone epigenetic modifications are often modified due to pollutants although antioxidants assist to diminish the detrimental free radicals. Plastics, adhesives, solvents and personal care products are all phthalates, and metals (cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel and zinc...) all have many dangerous and decremental transgenerational effects that are mostly not reversible, though synthetic biology may assist in the future with gene editing and other sustainable environmental solutions.

Gamma particles from the sun are normally filtered by stratospheric ozone (between 15-25km high), though chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have caused ozone-depletion (O3 ^ O2) and the consequential gamma particles are often involved in epigenomic hypermethylation modifications of the skin; though vitamin D is synthesized with sunlight, discouragement with respect to sunbathing is advisable in avoidance of undesirable modifications. Other pollutants and toxins have effects on epigenetic activation and repression of gene expression and immunity, examples would be oxidative damage that occurs during metabolism because oxygen is a radical with two unpaired electrons that spin in the same direction during metabolism. Homeostasis of the oxidants, antioxidants and redox status should complete otherwise consequential imbalance occurs. This physiological unbalance is addressed through intake of nutritional antioxidants, i.e., Vitamin A, C and selenium dependent glutathione and other antioxidant enhancing functional foods.

Functional foods

The National Academy of Sciences’ Food and Nutrition Board cites those functional foods is “any modified food or food ingredient that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional nutrients it contains” (Earl R, Thomas PR (eds) (1994). and the International Life Sciences Institute cites “foods that, by virtue of the presence of physiologically-active components, provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition”. The American Dietetic Association definition of functional foods cites the same as above and acknowledges foods that are “whole, fortified, enriched, or enhanced,” and consumed “as part of a varied diet on a regular basis, at effective levels” for imparting health benefits to consumers (Thomson C et al -1999) Thus functional foods are enhanced and fortified which provide health benefits with regular nutritional value towards optimal health when taken in regular specified quantity, functional foods are considered similar to genetically modified products wherein are fortified with additional nutritional benefit of preventive measure against several diseases in order to treat the medical conditions (Weststrate JA et al -2002).

Functional foods are an important source in the prevention, management, and treatment of diseases, functional foods can be natural, processed or engineered bio functional foods that contain known bioactive micronutrients; defined as foods that have additional functions via insertion of new ingredients or enhancement of existing ingredients of existing products. Developing new food products, similar in appearance to conventional food items, and/or bio-functional foods, whereby risks of chronic disease could be reduced beyond the basic nutritional functionality (see appendix III - Bio-Functional-foods).

Sources of Functional Foods are categorized as naturally derived products and/or industrially synthesized products; naturally occurring functional foods can be subdivided into plant-derived or from animal sources. Functional foods include oats, flaxseeds, cruciferous vegetables, citrus fruits, garlic, tea, grapes, wine, etc. and animal-derived foods include egg, meat, fish, milk, curd, cheese. Industrial products include nutraceuticals and chemically or synthesized or engineered functional foods utilising synthetic biology and nanotechnology. Also, prebiotics and probiotics (or bio-cultures) are of importance to establish or reestablish a functional gut microbiota.

The six main categories of functional foods that have desirable effects towards optimal healthy ageing follow: Flavonoid, Saponins, Isothiocyanates, Allyl Sulfides, Carotenoids, Catechins.

Flavonoids

The United States Department of Agriculture has estimated, in the United States adults generally consume 200-250 mg daily of naturally derived bioflavonoids.

Table 1. shows naturally derived flavonoids: -

Flavonoid

Classification

Dietary sources

Quercetin

flavonols

Vegetables, fruits and beverages, spices

Rutin

flavonols

Green tea, grape seeds, red peppers, apple, citrus fruits, berries, peaches

Macluraxanthone

Xanthones

Hedge apple, dyer's mulberry

Genistein

Isoflavone

fats, oils, beef, red clover, soybeans, psoralea, lupin, fava beans, kudzu

Scopoletin

Coumarin

Vinegar, dandelion coffee

Daidzein

Isoflavone

Soybean, tofu

Taxifolin

flavanonol

Vinegar and citrus fruits

Naringenin

flavanone

grapes

Abyssinones

flavanone

French bean seeds

Rutin

flavonol

apple, citrus fruits, berries, peaches

Eriordictyol

flavanone

Lemon, rose-hips

Fisetin

flavonol

Strawberries, apples, persimmons, onions, cucumbers

Theaflavin

Catechins

Tea leaves, black tea, oolong tea

Poenidin

Anthocyandin

Cranberries, blueberries, plums, grapes, cherries, sweet potatoes

Diosmetin

flavone

vetch

Tricin

flavone

Rice and bran

Biochanin

Isoflavone

Red clover, soya, alfalfa sprouts, peanuts, chickpeas and other legumes

Hesperidin

flavanone

Bitter orange, petit gran, orange, orange juice, lemon and lime

Epicatechin

flavan-3-ol

monomers

Milk, chocolate, reduced fat

Myricetin

flavonols

Vegetables, fruits, nuts, berries, tea red wine

Keampferol

flavonols

Apples, grapes, tomatoes, green tea, potatoes, onions, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, squash, cucumbers, lettuce, green beans, peaches, blackberries, raspberries, spinach

Luteolin

flavonols

Celery, broccoli, green peppers, parsley, thyme, dandelion, perilla, chamomile tea, carrots, olive oil, peppermint, rosemary, navel oranges, oregano

Apigenin

flavonols

Milk, chocolate, reduced fat

TaiS-Resvertrol -

flavonols - there are two isomers - cis

Polyphenols

Phytoalexin

Found in stressed plants

Red grapes, Japanese knotweed,

blueberries, bilberries, cranberries, peanuts, dark chocolate

Chemically, flavonoids are formed of a Ce-Cs-Ce structure, that consists of two benzene rings linked by a three carbon chains which form an oxygenated heterocyclic carbon ring. The classes of flavonoids, divided in according to their

chemical structures: - flavanones, flavones, dihydroflavonols, flavonols, flavan 3-

ols, flavanols - including monomers, proanthocyanidins, and other flavanolderived compounds.

Flavonoids are scavengers for radicals (or electrons), and are anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, help receptor enzyme system and also have inhibitory effects on cyclic-oxygenase and lipoxygenase, and Xanthine oxidase and Aldose reductase inhibitor, flavonoids and non-flavonoid (trans-resveratrol) are also antioxidants that help to reduce high levels of undesirable saturated fats and cholesterol in the bloodstream. Flavonoids have benefits of anti-inflammatory protecting cells from oxidative damage (and/or senescence), these dietary antioxidants if combined with the precursor to NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)) are preventive of the development of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, and cognitive diseases i.e., Alzheimer and dementia via reduction of neurological electron leakage (Garland et le. 2008) and antitumor anti-inflammatory, longevity via activation of SIRT1 nucleic enzyme (also see appendix, I).

Saponins

Saponins are an important part of functional foods with many health benefits towards optimal healthy ageing. Saponins are steroid, triterpenoid glycosides, common in a large number of plants and plant products. Several biological effects have been ascribed to saponins, research in the membrane, immune stimulant, hypo-cholesterolaemic and anti-carcinogenic properties. These structurally diverse compounds have also been observed to inhibit protozoan also to have the analgesic, anti-nociceptive, antioxidant activity, anti-fungal and antiviral agents. Saponins can form protein complexes with unknown effects when combined with proteins i.e., casein from milk also saponins can disrupt digestion of cholesterol and saturated fats (see Table 2, 3, 4).

Table 2 shows biological activities of saponins:-

Biological Activity of Saponins have been reported to possess a wide range of biological activities, which are summarized and listed alphabetically in Table 2.

While crude isolates, extracts of plants have been utilized in investigations for biological activity, saponins led to the emergence of structure and bio activity relationships (Oda et al., 2000;

Gurfinkel and Rao, 2003). The ability of saponins to swell and rupture erythrocytes causing a release of haemoglobin has been investigated for properties of saponins(Oda et al., 2000).

Humans generally do not suffer severe poisoning from saponins, quite the opposite, though toxicity of saponins to insects (insecticidal activity), parasite worms (anthelmintic activity), molluscs (molluscicidal), and fish (piscidal activity) and antifungal, antiviral, and antibacterial activity are well documented (Lacaille-Dubois and Wagner, 1996; Milgate and Roberts, 1995; Francis et al., 2002).

Toxicity of saponins to warm blooded animals is dependent on the method of administration, source, composition, and concentration of the saponin mixture (George, 1965; Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1990). While saponins show toxicity when given intravenously, their toxicity is much lower when administered orally which is attributed to low absorption and reduced haemolytic activity in the presence of plasma constituents (Fenwick et al., 1991; George, 1965; Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1990).

A study on the bio availability of soya saponins in humans showed that ingested soya saponins had low absorption rate in human intestinal cells and seem to be metabolized to soya sapogenol B via intestinal microorganisms in vivo and excreted in the faeces (Hu et al., 2004).

Adaptogenic

Adjuvant

Analgesic activity

Antiallergic

Antiedematous

Antiexudative

Antifeedant

Antifungal

Antigenotoxic

Antihepatotoxic inhibitory effect on ethanol absorption

Anti-inflammatory

Antimicrobial

Antimutagenic

Antiobesity

Antioxidant

Antiparasitic

Antiphlogistic

Antiprotozoal

Antipsoriatic

Antipyretic

Antispasmodic

Antithrombotic (effect on blood coagulability)

Antitussive (relieving or preventing cough)

Antiulcer

Antiviral

Chemopreventive

Cytotoxic

Diuretic

Effect on absorption of minerals and vitamins

Effect on animal growth (growth impairment), reproduction

Effect on cognitive behaviour

Effect on ethanol induced amnesia

Effect on morphine/nicotine induced hyperactivity

Effects on ruminal fermentation

Expectorant

Haemolytic

Hepaprotective

Hypocholesterolemic

Hypoglemic

Immunostimulatory effects

Increase permeability of intestinal mucosa cells

Inhibit active nutrient transport

Molluscicidal

Neuroprotective

Reduction in fat absorption

Reduction in ruminal ammonia concentrations

Reductions in stillbirths in swine

Ruminant bloat

Sedative

Hostettmann and Marston, 1995; Lacaille-Dubois and Wagner, 1996; Milgate and Roberts, 1995; Francis et al.,(2002)

Table 3 shows selected plant sources and their constituent saponins

Source

Aglycone

Saponin

Reference

Soybean

SoyasapogenolA

Acetyl soyasaponins A

1 (Ab), A 2 (Af),A 3 ,A 4(Aa), A 5(Ae), A 6,A c,Ad

Yoshiki et al., 1998

SoyasapogenolB

Soyasaponin DDMP a conjugated

I    (Bb) pg

II    (Bc) pa

III    (Bb) y g

IV    (Bc) y a

V    (Ba) ag

Yoshiki et al., 1998

SoyasapogenolE

Soyasaponin Be, Bd

Yoshiki et al., 1998

Chickpea

SoyasapogenolB

DDMP a conjugated saponins

Kerem et al., 2005; Price et al., 1988

Quillaja

Quillaic acid

QS 1-22, S1-12

Kensil and Marciani, 1991; Nord and Kenne,

2000

Horse chestnut

Protoescigenin, barringtogenol C

Aescin (escin): p-aescin, cryptoaescine, a-aescine

World Health Organization, 2001

Alfalfa

Medicagenic acid

I-XV

Oleszek, 1995

Hederagenin

XVI-XIX

SoyasapogenolB

E XX- XXVI

Zanhic acid

XXV-XXVI

Licorice

Glycyrrhetic acid

Glycyrrhizic acid b

World Health Organization, 1999a

Ginseng

20(s)-protopanaxadiol

20(s)-protopanaxatriol

Ra 1-3,Rb 1-3, Rc, Rc2, Rd,Rd2 Re2,Re3, Rf, Rg1,Rg2,Rh1

World Health Organization, 1999

Quinoa

Phytolaccagenic acid

Oleanolic acid

Hederagenin

Quinoa saponins

Mizui et al., 1990

Oat

Nuategenin

Avenacoside A, B

Onning et al., 1994

Yam

(Dioscoera

species)

Diosgenin

Dioscin

Hostettmann and Marston, 1995

Fenugreek

Diosgenin, yamogenin, tigogenin, neotigogenin, yuccagenin, lilagenin, gitogenin, neogitogenin, smilagenin, sarsasapoenin

Trigofoenoside    A-G,

Trigonelloside B, C

Sauvaire et al., 1995

Key: a is 2,3-dihydro-2,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H

-pyran-4-one.

b is Synonyms: glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizinic acid.

Table 4 - shows Saponin content of some selected plant material

Source

Saponin content (%)

Reference

Soybean

0.22-0.47

Fenwick et al., 1991

Chickpea

0.23

Fenwick et al., 1991

Green pea

0.18-4.2

Price et al., 1987

Quillaja bark

9-10

San Martin and Briones, 1999

Yucca

10

Oleszek et al., 2001

Fenugreek

4-6

Sauvaire et al., 2000

Alfalfa

0.14-1.71

Fenwick et al., 1991

Licorice root

22.2-32.3

Fenwick et al., 1991

American ginseng (P. quinquefolium L).

Young leaves

1.42-2.64

Li et al., 1996

Mature leaves

4.14-5.58

Li et al., 1996

Roots (4 year old)

2.44-3.88

Li et al., 1996

Oat

0.1-0.13

Price et al., 1987

Horse chestnut

3-6

Price et al., 1987

Sugar beet leaves

5.8

Price et al., 1987

Quinoa

0.14-2.3

Fenwick et al., 1991

Guglu Ustundag, Ozlem & Mazza, Giuseppe. (2007). Saponins: Properties, Applications and Processing. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

Isothiocyanates

Isothiocyanates are compounds produced by several plants that belong to the Brassicaceae, Capparaceae and Caricaceae families, such as Brussel sprouts, garden cress, kale, mustard greens, turnip greens, cabbage, broccoli, watercress, cauliflower horseradish, Japanese radish and cauliflower, all these vegetables significantly contribute to cancer chemo preventive activity.

Isothiocyanates are rich sources of Sulphur containing compounds called glucosinolates and are a system of physiological defense against pathogen attack. People who consume more than four portions of cruciferous vegetables per week appear to have a lower incidence of diseases (Fahey JW - 2001, Hecht SS et al -2004) These effects appear to be associated with diets rich in fruit and vegetables. Isothiocyanates are the chemical components that occur in cruciferous vegetables that mediate healthy ageing (see table 5 & 6).

Isothiocyanates are derived from the hydrolysis of glucosinolates by the enzyme myrosinase during the conversion of glucosinolates to isothiocyanates. Glucosinolates are thioglycosides that comprise of glycone moiety and a variable glycone-side-chains derived from one of a small number of amino acids. Amino acids accumulate in vegetative members of the Brassicales which include cruciferous vegetables; When plant tissues are damaged or stressed an endogenous plant thioglucosidase, commonly known as myrosinase cleaves the glucosinolate molecule, resulting in the generation of isothiocyanates.

Each glucosinolate forms a different isothiocyanate when hydrolyzed, broccoli is a good source of glucoraphanin. The glucosinolate precursor of sulforaphane. Isothiocyanates are derived from mustard oil (2-propenyl-isothiocyanates) and in the herb wasabi there is 4-methyl-sulphinylbutyl isothiocyanates (or sulforaphane). And in Broccoli - phenethyl-isothiocyanates and in watercress; and 3-butenyl-isothiocyanates within Chinese cabbage (Wilson et al - 1973) Isothiocyanates conjugate with glutathione leading to induction of oxidative stress and translocation of NRF2 from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and the resultant transcription of antioxidant helps gene expression (Fahey JW et al 2012, Verkerk R,et al - 2019)

There is accumulating evidence of isothiocyanatestes impact towards optimal health and healthy ageing and the usage of isothiocyanates towards cancer prevention (not a cure). Moderate quantities of Broccoli, wasabi, Chinese cabbage, Kale and mustard oil (see table 5 & 6 and appendix I).

Table 5 - shows Glucosinolate Content of Selected Cruciferous Vegetables, each glucosinolate forms a different isothiocyanate.

Total Glucosinolates

Food (raw)    Serving

(mg)

Brussels sprouts

A cup (44 g)

104

Garden cress

A cup (25 g)

98

Mustard greens

A cup, chopped (28 g)

79

Turnip

'A cup, cubes (65 g)

60

Cabbage, savoy

A cup, chopped (45 g)

35

Kale

1 cup, chopped (67 g)

67

Watercress

1 cup, chopped (34 g)

32

Kohlrabi

A cup, chopped (67 g)

31

Cabbage, red

A cup, chopped (45 g)

29

Broccoli

A cup, chopped (44 g)

27

Horseradish

1 tablespoon (15 g)

24

Cauliflower

A cup, chopped (50 g)

22

Bok choy (pak choi)

A cup, chopped (35 g)

19

Table 6 - shows functional food sources of selected Isothiocyanates and their Glucosinolate Precursors: -

Isothiocyanate

Glucosinolate

(precursor)

Food Sources

Allyl isothiocyanate

Sinigrin

Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, horseradish, kohlrabi, mustard, radish

Benzyl

isothiocyanate

Glucotropaeolin

Cabbage, garden cress, Indian cress

Phenethyl

isothiocyanate

Gluconasturtiin

Watercress

Sulforaphane

Glucoraphanin

Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale

Isothiocyanate epigenetic regulation, the deacetylation of histones by HDAC restricts access of transcription factors to the DNA that suppresses transcription, can potentially promote differentiation and apoptosis in transformed (precancerous) cells; Isothiocyanates inhibit HDAC expression and activity in cultured cancer cells HDAC activity was reduced in blood cells following ingestion of 68g (one cup) of sulforaphane-rich broccoli sprouts (see Table 5). Isothiocyanates may also affect microRNA-mediated gene silencing though further research is necessary (Abbaoui B et al - 2017).

Allyl Sulfides

Organosulfur (allyl sulfides) compounds found in allium vegetables such as garlic and onions which are known anti-carcinogenic agents. Allyl sulfides increase the production of glutathione S-transferase

Garlic also contain phytochemicals (especially if stressed), such as quercetin and allyl sulfides, which are linked to cardiovascular health, immunity function ..., also total white blood cell count has been enhanced significantly with moderate intake of garlic.

Allyl sulfides are more powerful inducers than the methyl or propyl derivatives, and within the allyl series, the disulfide is a more potent inducer than the monosulfide. Thiosulfonates are allylsulfide compounds including allicin, diallyldisulfide (DADs), diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl trisulfide, Sallylmercaptocysteine, S-allylcysteineallyl and methyl sulfide (see figure 1b & 1c)

Garlic derived DADS and DATS influenced anaerobic cysteine metabolism, elevating the activity of enzymes involved in the normal kidneys. DATS inhibits ALDH activity in the kidneys, showing a new pharmacological property of garlic derived allyl trisulfide. ALDH inhibition can lead to an increase concentration of aldehydes, the toxicity of which could be used in the reduction of senescent cells.

Garlic-derived allyl sulfides relates to sulfane Sulphur metabolism or with ALDH activity though further studies are required. Garlic-derived allyl sulfides and enzymes involved with the synthesis and biodegradation of H2S again further research on catalytic activity, and protein antibody level, and on gene expression is required; Allyl sulfides make alterations in cholesterol, arachidonic acid, phospholipids and thiols account for changes in membrane functionality. Allyl sulfides are recognized for ability to suppress cellular proliferation by the induction of apoptosis (see figure 1b & 1c and Appendix I).

Allyl sulfides derived from garlic have the ability of to suppress tumor proliferation both in vitro and in vivo. This anti-neoplastic effect is greater for lipid-soluble than water-soluble, concentration and duration of exposure will increase effects of lipid-and water solubility, may relate to an increase in membrane fluidity and suppression of integrin glycoprotein mediated adhesion. This increased histone acetylation, increased intracellular calcium and elevated cellular peroxide production. The composition of the entire diet and epigenetic factors will possibly determine the true future benefits that perhaps will arise from allyl Sulphur compounds from garlic and other genus Allium functional foods.

Carotenoids

Carotenoids have important physiological actions known is the provitamin A activity, Vitamin A is essential for normal vision, gene expression, embryonic development, immunological functions and control of metabolic processes.

Table 7 shows examples of functional food that includes Carotenoids: -

(3-carotene

Brussel sprouts, Karat bananas, peaches, pepper (red, orange, green), west

Indian cherry, apricot, broccoli, buriti, carrots, gac oil, kale, mango, red palm

oil, spinach, sweet potato, tomatoes

(3-cry ptoxanth in

Persimmon and pitanga

Lutein

Broccoli, green leafy vegetables, yellow and green peppers

Zeaxanthin

Buriti, Chinese wolfberry and orange and red peppers

Lycopene

Carrots, guava, tomatoes and watermelon

Carotenoids are especially abundant in yellow-orange fruits and vegetables and in dark green, leafy vegetables. Though carotenoids are also found in animal derived products e.g., dairy products, eggs, some fish and seafood.

Vitamin A is an important micronutrient within functional foods as carotenoids are mainly present in plants. Provitamin A activity exerted by some carotenoids, influences diverse molecular and cellular processes, involved in risk reduction of several chronic diseases; these are certain types of cancers, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, age-related macular degeneration and cataracts and other diseases.

Catechins

Table 8 shows the composition of major components in green tea, Catechins are also found in other products i.e., wine, tea, cacao, coffee, and wild berries raspberries and acai berries.

Components

% of Dry weight

Catechins

30

Theanine

3

Amino acids

4

Caffeine

3

Carbohydrates

11

Proteins

15

Organic acids

2

Lipids

3

Minerals

10

Chlorophyll and other pigments

0.5

Green Tea - comprises of a verity of soluble substances i.e. catechins, caffeine, theanine, chlorophyll, organic acids, and vitamins as shown in Table 8. Notice there is a large quantity of Catechins in green tea, in comparison to other soluble substances green tea has more catechins compared to other teas such as black tea or oolong tea, tea. Catechins and polyphenols are effective scavengers of reactive oxygen species in vitro which function as antioxidants that form flavonoids of which has a protective function from free radicals. For this rational detox Teas incorporate large amounts of catechins that assist with weight loss efforts by increasing physiological magnitude of energy by utilising stored body fat for energy towards optimal healthy ageing.

Probiotics

Probiotics are bacterial species and metabolites found in functional foods, the microbiota are found in the lungs, stomach, intestinal tract and colon.

This list of probiotics is rudimentary:

Bifildobacterium lactis

Lactobacillus paracasei

Enterococcus faecium

Lactobacillus salivarius

Lactobacillus acidophilus

Lactobacillus bulgaricus

Lactobacillus plantarum

Bacillus coagluans

Lactococcus lactis

Bifildobacterium breve

Lactobacillus rhamnsus

Bifildobacterium lungum ...

The above probiotics (or bio-cultures) are an important part of immunity and have a reconstruction effect in the gut, also assists in cellular metabolism and blood calcium levels and bile metabolism, also the synthesis of vitamins. This improves immunity, and the nerve system, and endocrine system and enhancement of glycemic control; all of which effect the epigenetics in a positive way (Tonucci LB et al - 2017) towards optimal healthy ageing. Similar probiotics are incorporated into foods i.e., bioyogurt and fermented milk, cheese, and fruit-based drinks. Probiotic mechanisms include colonization of host-tissues in the gastrointestinal tract, improve glucose metabolism, improve skin, stomach, colon to create a healthy microbiota. The mechanism of gut microbiota ameliorates intestinal wall permeability for healthier mineral absorption providing fibrous prebiotics is also included (see functional foods and Bio-Functional-foods letter within appendix III)

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology engineering will produce effective nanoscale nutrient carriers of functional foods, thereby nanoparticles are utilized for developing foods with higher nutritional value, sensory response, process-ability, and shelf life. These various types of particles will enable molecular suiting and delivery system for specific physiological needs. Applied nanotechnology will improve the functionality of functional foods to provide physiological benefits; prepared via fortification with vitamins and minerals more than mandatory requirements with additional bioactive ingredients and enhancement via epigenetic modifications and selectively breeding and engineering via synthetic biology of various plant and bacteria species... Functional foods maybe, emulsions, and foams that exhibit complexity and diversity though with natural appearance.

Application of nanotechnology in food science utilizing a delivery system for encapsulating, protecting, and controlling the release of micronutrients via functional foods towards optimal health with benefits to reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Examples of nutraceuticals are natural foods, including antioxidants, dietary supplements, fortified dairy products, and citrus fruits, and vitamins, minerals, herbals, milk, and cereals.

Future functional foods will be nanoparticles that are biological molecules found naturally in certain foods that provide physiological benefits thereby diminishing the risks of many diseases. The reduced particle size that nanotechnology provides improve properties of biological molecules, improvement of delivery, solubility, prolonged gastrointestinal time, and efficient cellular absorption

The majority of functional food nanoparticles conventionally were the colloid group (i.e., co-enzymes); the stabilization of colloidal particles is achieved via adsorbing surfactants and polymers and by coating the nanoparticles with chemically bonding molecules.

Micro emulsions are thermodynamically stable systems, formed spontaneously when surfactants and other biological components are added to water under the right environmental conditions. Generally, the new functional bioactive foods consist of micronutrients inside nanoparticles. Utilizing surfactants, lipids and carbohydrates; all compacted in a small particle size of < 500 nm. These new functional foods will include improved bioavailability, centrifugal separation, greater stability, and higher optical clarity (Momin et al., 2013; Joye et al., 2014; Sekhon, 2010).

Nutriments are often lost during processing or storage of food because of the enzymatically unstable nature of many of the micronutrients that are incorporated into food products The stability of micronutrients is important and a successful delivery system would incorporate micronutrients within functional foods while release in the bioactive form upon consumption of food for digestion.

The design and production of food-grade nanoparticles that food manufacturers may utilize to develop effective micronutrient is a potential resource for encapsulating and enhancement and stability, functionality, and bioavailability of micronutrients for functional foods and food packaging. Several applications of nanotechnologies have become apparent with usage of nanoparticles, such as liposomes, nano-emulsions, biopolymeric nanoparticles, and cubosomes, as well as the development of nano-sensors, with the objective of ensuring food safety Nasr, Nasr. (2015)

Lipid-based nano-encapsulation systems boost antioxidant performance, enhancing solubility and bioavailability for manufactures the principal lipid-based nano-encapsulation systems with potential use in food and nutraceutical industries. Thus, nanotechnology offers food technologists new opportunities to innovate in encapsulation and controlled release of food materials, as well as providing enhanced bioavailability, stability, and shelf life for sensitive ingredients (Mozafari et al., 2012). Nano-encapsulation packaging is advantageous in developing designer probiotic bacterial preparations with the potential for locating gastrointestinal tract where the probiotics/bio-cultures interact with specific receptors. The health-enhancing properties of polyphenols have attracted much attention in recent years. A milk-based protein has been used to prepare oil-inwater, sodium caseinate stabilized nano-emulsions. The immobilization of fat droplets, composed of high melting temperature milk fat triglycerides, has provided protection against packaged nutrient degradation and enhance food flavor and texture, to reduce fat content, or to encapsulate nutrients, such as vitamins, and increase functionality and stability (Wai-Yee Fung, Kay-Hay Yuen, and Min-Tze Liong - 2011).

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Chapter 2